Regulation and government intervention was arguably the most important and influential factor in the shaping of radio in the 1920s because of its role in producing a cohesive, standards based radio industry controlled by American companies and interests.
The force of regulation and government intervention works to build cohesiveness by setting up specific stipulations and standards for how an industry or other operation should carry out its business. It helps put competing businesses on the same page so that their competition becomes constructive rather than destructive. Imagine if every electric company used a different standard for the voltage and regulation of the electricity it provided - it would bring great chaos and disorder because many electronic devices wouldn't work the same, or even work at all, depending on what provider the consumer was using. The regulations set up by governments can operate much in the same way that train tracks work for trains; the tracks may seem firm and restricting if you looked at just the tracks themselves, but they actually allow the trains to operate effectively and safely.
This is a key reason why government regulation and intervention was so important to the formation of the radio industry. When many more people started jumping on the radio bandwagon and radio stations and transmitters became more widespread, the problems grew just as rapidly. Transmitters were being operated in frequencies too close to one another at too close of a distance, causing overlap and interference that often led to both stations being practically unlistenable. Naturally, however, neither of a set of stations involved in such a conflict would be willing to just yield to the other(s), for fear of being taken over by the competition. Other problems included amateur radio operators interrupting official government, nautical, and corporate transmissions, at times in the form of fake distress signals <Radio Act, Radio Act 1927.> To solve these problems, the US Government increased their control over radio and licensed transmitters, defined the radio band (overall range of frequencies to be used for radio,) told the owners what frequency each could broadcast on, at what power they could do so, and even limited the times of day at which some transmitters could broadcast. The government also fostered the growth of an early radio industry owned by American Corporations when it forced foreign interests out of the US, such as when Italian Marconi was "forced to sell its American assets to General Electric." (Media Now, 160) This action in turned helped to foster the right conditions for the main American radio interests to set up a patent pool in 1920, which helped to standardize radio equipment, which brought even greater inter-operability and unification to the industry.
Sunday, September 26, 2010
Sunday, September 19, 2010
Cultivating an Alternate Reality.
It is well known that the images and ideas presented in the Media can have a strong impact on the views of society; this phenomena can sometimes have quite damaging effects. The concept of cultivation theory allows me to better understand the effects of images of terrorism presented in media and how they "cultivate" an irrational fear of Muslim and Middle Eastern people.
Cultivation theory asserts that one's exposure to the various forms of mass media can effect one's world view. The "mediated reality" of popular TV, for example, can be very different than what really goes on off screen in terms of prevalence. As one takes in the images and ideas presented in the media, the frequency of these images makes them seem common or ordinary, so the viewer begins to assume that what he experiences through the media is comparable to what actually happens on average to people throughout the world.
One example that helps me understand the concept of cultivation theory is the unqualified fear of Muslims and other Middle Eastern people in the United States. Since the 2001 attacks on the Twin Towers, increased attention has been given to terror and terroristic groups by the media. Countless press articles, television news stories, TV Shows (such as The Unit and 24), and movies (Black Hawn Down, Jarhead, Hurt Locker, etc) have been dedicated to this idea of fighting terror. The overwhelming presence of the types of images by the Media has caused many Americans to develop an overwhelming fear of Muslims and Middle Eastern peoples because it greatly over exaggerates the implied number of people who take part in these terroristic acts and makes the acts themselves seem much more common than they are. Sadly, to many people in America, every Muslim (or not even Muslims, but Indians, Hindus, and, as the video below shows, Sikhs) in an airport is a possible terrorist and a threat to public safety. This unfortunate happenstance, though regretfully common, is not grounded in reality. Besides the fact that the Muslim extremists responsible for the 9/11 attacks and other acts of terror are just a very small group of people in the Muslim world with ideas and objectives that in now way reflect the view of the great overwhelming majority (and not the mention that this extremist sub-sect is not the only group responsible for terroristic acts), many groups of of people that have been racially profiled and discriminated against because of the effects of cultivation theory aren't even Muslim!
Cultivation theory asserts that one's exposure to the various forms of mass media can effect one's world view. The "mediated reality" of popular TV, for example, can be very different than what really goes on off screen in terms of prevalence. As one takes in the images and ideas presented in the media, the frequency of these images makes them seem common or ordinary, so the viewer begins to assume that what he experiences through the media is comparable to what actually happens on average to people throughout the world.
One example that helps me understand the concept of cultivation theory is the unqualified fear of Muslims and other Middle Eastern people in the United States. Since the 2001 attacks on the Twin Towers, increased attention has been given to terror and terroristic groups by the media. Countless press articles, television news stories, TV Shows (such as The Unit and 24), and movies (Black Hawn Down, Jarhead, Hurt Locker, etc) have been dedicated to this idea of fighting terror. The overwhelming presence of the types of images by the Media has caused many Americans to develop an overwhelming fear of Muslims and Middle Eastern peoples because it greatly over exaggerates the implied number of people who take part in these terroristic acts and makes the acts themselves seem much more common than they are. Sadly, to many people in America, every Muslim (or not even Muslims, but Indians, Hindus, and, as the video below shows, Sikhs) in an airport is a possible terrorist and a threat to public safety. This unfortunate happenstance, though regretfully common, is not grounded in reality. Besides the fact that the Muslim extremists responsible for the 9/11 attacks and other acts of terror are just a very small group of people in the Muslim world with ideas and objectives that in now way reflect the view of the great overwhelming majority (and not the mention that this extremist sub-sect is not the only group responsible for terroristic acts), many groups of of people that have been racially profiled and discriminated against because of the effects of cultivation theory aren't even Muslim!
Sunday, September 12, 2010
Hegemony
Hegemony is the process through which a dominant, influential group in a society spreads its ideology to the rest of the populace - not by force - but by introducing ideas in a more discrete manner so that these concepts become adopted by society at large as "common knowledge" or accepted norms. Media plays an extremely influential role in this process, as can be evidenced by a simple survey of the ideas and practices of the people one comes in contact with every day.
The basis for this idea is nothing new, and has been in existence and practiced in some form or another throughout history. Although media, in becoming one of the main vehicles for hegemony, has changed the mode through which hegemony has been carried out in more recent generations, the process remains the same. The great Roman poet Ovid, who died in the first century A.D, wrote that, "dripping water hollows out stone, not through force but through persistence." Parallel to this, Thomas Hardy writes in his novel, Tess of the d'Urbervilles, "The constant dripping of water, however slight, can wash away a stone."
These two literary references capture the main concept of how hegemony works: instead of using brute force tactics, the influential, persistent process of spreading ideas in a way so that they become accepted societal norms is a tool with limitless potential that can reshape an entire social landscape.
The first thirty seconds of the narrative below in a trailer for Inception, is prevalent to this discussion on the power of ideas:
When one group possesses the power and ability to spread their ideology through hegemony, the results are more effective and influential than trying to command the same amount of control through brute force and scare tactics, because the ideas are taken hold of and rooted in the minds of individuals, instead of just carried through in observance when there is someone overhead looking down with a "big stick."
As eluded to earlier through the two literary works, hegemony works though persistence and consistency. Over time, because of the prevalence of these ideas is at a level where it is next to impossible for one to avoid exposure, the ideas of the dominant group are imprinted on the minds of society. Because they are constantly surrounded by whatever the idea, belief, concept, or practice may be, society becomes desensitized to these. Once the "shock factor" is removed, a door is then opened for actions or ideas once deemed immoral, unsound, or otherwise unacceptable to become, well, accepted. In effect, hegemony works the "rewrite the rules" of a society, so to speak.
Examples of hegemony can be found everywhere that give further understanding to this process. During Thursday's screening of the documentaries Killing us Softly and Tough Guise, I experienced one such example. The auditorium was filling up quickly, so I assumed a seat towards the front which, I assumed, would allow me to watch with less distraction. This quickly turned out not to be the case, as the person sitting to my left proved to make himself into quite a particular obnoxious distraction throughout the entire screening. As unfortunate (or ironic) as this circumstance may have been, the silver lining has shown itself in the fact that this person is now the lucky topic of conversation in my example of hegemony - Let's call him Steve the Sexist.
Throughout the screening of Killing Us Softly, Steve the Sexist was sure to come up with a witty, overly vulgar comment to go along with every attractive female that was shown on the documentary, including countless references to sex and sexual acts with said women, comments on their bodies, etc. Furthermore, whenever Kilbourne made mention of the very actions that Steve was participating in or the devaluing concepts that media has helped to spread about women, he was sure to comment in some form or another that this was the "way it should be." Little did Steve the Sexist realize, that through his comments, gestures, and actions, he was proving Kilbourne's point exactly, as well as ever so (un)graciously illustrating the concept of hegemony: even in direct opposition to the ideas and actions he deemed "normal" and "acceptable" that is, the documentary created to expose such actions, their rise, and the wrongs and hurts they cause, he failed to see or even recognize the slightest err or wrong in his actions. The implication here is that hegemony has had such a great impact on Steve the Sexist concerning his view of women that is has effected the roles he assumes for them, and their subsequent objectification in his mind, because such actions and ideologies have been the predominate influence on his thinking.
The basis for this idea is nothing new, and has been in existence and practiced in some form or another throughout history. Although media, in becoming one of the main vehicles for hegemony, has changed the mode through which hegemony has been carried out in more recent generations, the process remains the same. The great Roman poet Ovid, who died in the first century A.D, wrote that, "dripping water hollows out stone, not through force but through persistence." Parallel to this, Thomas Hardy writes in his novel, Tess of the d'Urbervilles, "The constant dripping of water, however slight, can wash away a stone."
These two literary references capture the main concept of how hegemony works: instead of using brute force tactics, the influential, persistent process of spreading ideas in a way so that they become accepted societal norms is a tool with limitless potential that can reshape an entire social landscape.
The first thirty seconds of the narrative below in a trailer for Inception, is prevalent to this discussion on the power of ideas:
If an idea is such a powerful phenomena, even in just the mind of one person, then how powerful of a force is created when the same idea becomes shared and accepted by an entire society? Here we begin to see just how powerful and influential hegemony is.What's the most resilient parasite? - An idea.A single idea from the human mind can build cities.An idea can transform the world - and rewrite all the rules.
When one group possesses the power and ability to spread their ideology through hegemony, the results are more effective and influential than trying to command the same amount of control through brute force and scare tactics, because the ideas are taken hold of and rooted in the minds of individuals, instead of just carried through in observance when there is someone overhead looking down with a "big stick."
As eluded to earlier through the two literary works, hegemony works though persistence and consistency. Over time, because of the prevalence of these ideas is at a level where it is next to impossible for one to avoid exposure, the ideas of the dominant group are imprinted on the minds of society. Because they are constantly surrounded by whatever the idea, belief, concept, or practice may be, society becomes desensitized to these. Once the "shock factor" is removed, a door is then opened for actions or ideas once deemed immoral, unsound, or otherwise unacceptable to become, well, accepted. In effect, hegemony works the "rewrite the rules" of a society, so to speak.
Examples of hegemony can be found everywhere that give further understanding to this process. During Thursday's screening of the documentaries Killing us Softly and Tough Guise, I experienced one such example. The auditorium was filling up quickly, so I assumed a seat towards the front which, I assumed, would allow me to watch with less distraction. This quickly turned out not to be the case, as the person sitting to my left proved to make himself into quite a particular obnoxious distraction throughout the entire screening. As unfortunate (or ironic) as this circumstance may have been, the silver lining has shown itself in the fact that this person is now the lucky topic of conversation in my example of hegemony - Let's call him Steve the Sexist.
Throughout the screening of Killing Us Softly, Steve the Sexist was sure to come up with a witty, overly vulgar comment to go along with every attractive female that was shown on the documentary, including countless references to sex and sexual acts with said women, comments on their bodies, etc. Furthermore, whenever Kilbourne made mention of the very actions that Steve was participating in or the devaluing concepts that media has helped to spread about women, he was sure to comment in some form or another that this was the "way it should be." Little did Steve the Sexist realize, that through his comments, gestures, and actions, he was proving Kilbourne's point exactly, as well as ever so (un)graciously illustrating the concept of hegemony: even in direct opposition to the ideas and actions he deemed "normal" and "acceptable" that is, the documentary created to expose such actions, their rise, and the wrongs and hurts they cause, he failed to see or even recognize the slightest err or wrong in his actions. The implication here is that hegemony has had such a great impact on Steve the Sexist concerning his view of women that is has effected the roles he assumes for them, and their subsequent objectification in his mind, because such actions and ideologies have been the predominate influence on his thinking.
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